Changes in Formerly Communist Nations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Changes in Formerly Communist Nations - Essay Example However, the fact of the matter is that the nations which have already been listed had rather developed economies. Due to the fact that the Soviet Union was primarily concerned with its defense against the West, it built up a high level of economic strength, industrial production, infrastructure, and other means of economic development within the nations of Eastern and Central Europe. However, when one considers the level of overall economic development that existed within the remainder of the Soviet Union’s vast empire, the states of Central Asia for instance, it is rapidly understood that as disastrous as the collapse of the Soviet Union was for the individuals living within Eastern and Central Europe, it was in order of magnitude more disastrous for the undeveloped nations within Central Asia. As a function of this, this brief analysis will consider the case of Uzbekistan and trace the hardships that it was forced to face immediately following the collapse of an empire that defined this region for the better part of 60 years (Goff et al, 2008). One of the most powerful effects that the collapse of the Soviet Union had was with regards to the economic integration that had previously existed between the empire. Although the Soviet Union engaged in outside trade, almost all of the domestic needs of production were realized within its contiguous borders. In such a way, scientists were moved to remote regions as a means of conducting further research, cotton was specialized and grown in key areas, industry sprung up around natural resource deposits and access to rivers and the sea, and other industries were differentiated as a means of geography and need. However, this was a centrally planned economy and one in which a perfect level of natural growth could not be exhibited. In the case of all of the Soviet Union, the years immediately following its collapse were punctuated by extreme economic hardship, the lack of currency and/or currency stability, supply and demand issues, and a number of other factors directly related to transition from a centrally planned communist economy to free market economy. In the case of Uzbekistan, the nation had only a light level of industrialization, no access to the sea, no natural land barriers, over 10 distinct ethnicities, and an environment that was heavily polluted an increasingly arid (Goff et al, 2008). In such a manner, the collapse of the Soviet Union provided an extreme level of shock to the region due to the fact that it no longer had means to sustain itself, ability to trade with the outside world, or any level of developed industry upon which you could rely. One of the defining aspects of Uzbekistan within the Soviet Union had been its production of cotton. However due to the fact that the nation was almost predominantly arid, it lacks the water resources to continue this high output of cotton to trade with the outside world. Accordingly, as a result of the lack of resources and economic hardships that punctuated the years following the collapse of the Soviet Union, a series of order conflicts, Islamic uprisings, and failed Democratic efforts defined the way in which is Uzbekistan sought to integrate with the rest of the world. Whereas there is doubtless and myriad of key issues that

The Effect Of Corruption On Taxtation System Essay Example for Free

The Effect Of Corruption On Taxtation System Essay Introduction: The Federal government to collect taxes on income other than agriculture income, taxes on capital value, custom, excise duties and sale taxes. In the modern age, corruption is found in almost all the countries of the world. It has been found in all the ages, like an incurable diseases. It has a great crime against the member of the society. Corruption in the tax administration is a two way process. For each corrupt employee, there is a corrupt private sector person who is corrupt either willingly or under duress. Findings in 2001 suggest that a large majority of the private sector justifies non-payment of the taxes because of the simple non-performance of the government in its duties. Many respondents to the survey mentioned other countries where the state ensures provision of inadequate quality infrastructure as health, education, social security, roads and above all security of life and property. Corruption cannot be viewed in isolaton, as it is a part of the broader issue of governance and public management. The quality of a country s’ governance is a critical factor for its development process. It is thus surprising how very small attention is given to one of the most fundamental way that public revenue are raised. Developing countries are typically unable to generate sufficient amount of revenue from taxation because these countries face a number of institutional problems in the process of revenue generation. One of the main problems is corruption in tax administration and tax system reforms (Brondolo,et al.(2008). The quality of governance as a whole is also relevant in this context. It is agreed that the presence of tax system and corruption of public officials is a social phenomena that can significantly reduce tax revenue and seriously hurt economics growth and development. We feel that overlooking them will make any corruption reduction in the tax administration. Hence, even if we cannot change anything in this area, it is our duty to take the decision makers about the very important rule that the play in encouraging and sustaining corruption in the tax administration. Various studies try to investigate the determinants of tax revenue [e.g.,Teera(2003);weiss (1969);Tanzi and zee (2000) and imam and jacobs (2007) .Imam and Jacobs (2007) explain that real per capita income, share of agriculture in GDP, trade openness, inflation and corruption are the most important determinants of tax collection. Gupta (2007) finds that several structural factors like per capita GDP share of agriculture in GDP trade openness foreign aid, foreign debt and some new institutional variable like corruption and political stability are statistically and strong determinants of revenue performance. Pakistan’s Taxation System Federal taxes in Pakistan like most of the taxation systems in the world are classified into two broad categories, viz., direct and indirect taxes. A broad description regarding the nature of administration of these taxes is explained below: Direct Taxes Direct taxes primarily comprise income tax, along with supplementary role of wealth tax. For the purpose of the charge of tax and the total income, all income is classified under the following heads: †¢ Salaries †¢ Interest on securities; †¢ Income from property; †¢ Income from business or professions †¢ Capital gains; and income from other sources. Personal Tax All individuals, unregistered firms, associations of persons, etc., are liable to tax, at the rates rending from 10 to 35 per cent. Tax on Companies All public companies (other than banking companies) incorporated in Pakistan are assessed for tax at corporate rate of 39%. However, the effective rate is likely to differ on account of allowances and related to industry, location, exports, etc. Inter-Corporate Dividend Tax Tax on the dividends received by a public company from a Pakistan company is payable at the rate of 5% and at the rate of 15% in case dividends are received by a foreign company. Inter-corporate dividends declared or distributed by power generation companies is subject to reduced rate of tax i.e., 7.5%. Other companies are taxed at the rate of 20%. Dividends paid to all non-company shareholders by the companies are subject to with holding tax of 10% which is treated as a full and final discharge of tax liability in respect of this source of income. Treatment of Dividend Income: Dividend income received as below enjoys tax exemption, provided it does not exceed Rs. 10,000/-. Objective: The main objective of these is to increase the efficiency of tax administration, specifically by reducing corruption and taxation system. Literature review: Sandamo (2004) defines the concept of systemm in the following words.†Tax system is a violation of the law: when the taxpayer from reporting income from labour or capital which is in principal taxable, he engages in an illegal activity that makes him liable to administrative or legal action from the authorities.† Various studies explain that collection of tax revenue is one of the important areas where corruption is most likely to arise [Galtung (1995); Li (1997); Toye and Moore (1998); Tanzi (2000); and Tungodden (2003). Fjeldstad (2005) examines the experience of the Uganda Revenue authority (URA) in controlling fiscal corruption. The study concludes that several factors have contributed to the unsatisfactory results of the URA. The study also explains that pay level of employees in URA is one of the several factors affecting the behavior of tax officers. Fjeldstad and Bertil (2001) explain that this paradox does not justify policies to stimulate corruption. It analyses that in the short corruption may raise tax revenue but in the long run the opposite will be the case. with high Tanzi and Dvoodi (1997) have provided evidence that countries level of corruption tend to have lower collection of tax revenues in relation to GDP. The implication is that some of the taxes paid by taxpayers are diverted away from public accounts. Tanzi(1999) argues that a distinction needs to be made between taxes collected by the tax administrators and taxes received by the treasury. Sanyal, et al. (1998) investigates the relationship between corruption, tax system and laffer curve. The study explain that a corrupt tax administration leads to laffer curve behavior (a higher tax rate leads to a smaller net revenue). The study explain that â€Å"net revenue earned from a truth revealing audit probability always exceeds net revenue through audits, taxes, and penalties in the cheating region†. Hadi (2006) has taken an effort to see the relationship between corruption and tax evasion. This study analysis that how bribery affects tax evasion. It also explains how tax-payers would be tending to pay bribes to maximize their expected income. The study used three different groups of people, individual taxpayers, tax collectors, and inspectors. The results shows that size of bribe negatively affect the tax evasion. Chand and Karl (1999) examined the issue to control fiscal corruption by providing incentives to fiscal officers. A model is developed to expose the incentives effect. This study explains the importance of organizational setup and conditions of service of fiscal officers. The study concludes that corruption has to be done due to low wages and other social circumstances. Phillps and sandal (2008) explains the relationship between governance and tax reforms. The study explains that three key dynamics reflects the relationship between governance, taxation and investment climate. Firstly good tax system positively depends on good governance. Secondly a fair domestic taxation system promotes good governance because benefit tax system allows population to pay fairly. Aizenman and yothin (2005) explains that collection efficiency is determined by the penalty on underpaying and probability of audit. Their main purpose is to prove the dependence of VAT collections efficiency on some key structural and political economy factor, The study shows that collection efficiency of the value added is affected by economic structure that increase the cost of enforcement. The collection efficiency reduces with less urbanization, less trade openness and higher share of agriculture. Conclusions: *The study concludes that governance and corruption are two main determinant of tax revenue. *Corruption has adverse effect on tax collection, while good governance contributes to better performance in tax collection. * The study concludes that corruption has negative effect on tax revenues. * In developing countries tax revenue collection depends on efficiency of government. Thus the accountability , political stability , government effectiveness, regulatory quality , rule of law and control of corruption and are important factors in determining tax revenues in developing countries. * An improved tax to GDP ratio can be achieved by using a combination of good governance, improved tax administration, good macroeconomics policies and other discretionary tax measures. Policy implications: *As confidance building measure to address tax payers concern. Government must demonstrate genuine authority at the top level, arrange public of tax return of ruling elite, some percentage of taxes revenues for specific social sectors, and create a demonstrable linkage between revenue generation and development expenditure of an area. *Separate tax assessment and adjudication. *Maximum authority to tax administration. *Policy implications for governments internationally when consideration is given to the issue of effective administrations. Efforts need to be made by governments to make improvements to the governance ( voice and accountability, political stability , government effectiveness, regulatory quality , rule of law and control of corruption) as a starting point. *Fiscal corruption in the tax administration is reduced by required laws, which are enforced by independent and efficient judicial system. *Democratic political institutions are in place, taxpayers are allowed to freely express their opinion about the tax system, so tax administrations should become more transparent and publicaly accountable, hence fiscal corruption is more easily exposed. *Developing countries need actively to strive to reduce the opportunities of corruption in tax administration and change in incentive structure for tax officials. *International donors like IMF may benefit in achieving its objectives if its adopt eradication of corruption as the prime component of conditionalities’.which are almost always attatched to their programmes of soft loans. *Business process reengineering should minimum tax payers/tax collectors interaction , simplified system and rules , reduced discretionary power s, Strengthened monitoring ad accountability, and increase transparency. References: Acconcia, A.,M.D’Amato, and R.Martina (2003) Tax Evasion and Corruptionn in Tax Administration Journal of public Economics. Aizenman, J. and Y.Jinjarak (2005) The Collection Efficiency of the value Added Tax: Theory and international Evidence. Alm J.,R.W. Bahl and M.N. Murrey (1991) Tax Base Erosion in Developing Countries . Bird, Richard (2004) societal institiutions and Tax Effort in Developing Countries. Gupta, S.A (2007) Determinants of Tax Revenue Effort in Developing Countries . Phillips, M. and R.Sandall (2008) Linking Business Tax Reforms with Goverance. Tanzi, V. and H.Zee (2001) Tax policy for Developing Countries. Tanzi, Vito (2000) Taxtation in the last Decade.Centre for Research on Economics Development and Policy Reforms. Tanzi, V. And H.Zee (2000) Tax policy for Emerging Markets: Developing Countries. Washington , DC: International Monetatry Fund.

Comparison of Urban Sociological Theories Essay Example for Free

Comparison of Urban Sociological Theories Essay Comparison of Urban Sociological Theories In order for an urban sociologist to discover â€Å"How urban societies work,† theories of â€Å"urban ecology† or â€Å"political economy† are used as a guide in their research. Urban ecology refers to the importance of social structure and social organization as shaping social life in the city. Urban ecologist concerns for social order, social cohesion, community ties and social differentiation offer key insight to how societies work (Kleniewski, 2001). Alternatively political economy stresses the use of power, domination and resources in the shaping of cities (Kleniewski, 2001). Urban sociologists’ theoretical approach to research questions is based on fundamental assumptions that they find most useful for understanding the operation of the social world. Therefore researchers using these different theories will ask different questions, examine different data and interpret their findings in different ways (Kleniewski, 2001). In the early years of 1910-1920, a time of social change and urban growth, urban sociologists in the United States, the Chicago School, were directly confronted by the diversity, liveliness and apparent fragmentation of urban life. The urban sociologists of the Chicago School drew a concern for order, cohesion and social relationships (Kleniewski, 2001). The founder of the Chicago School of urban sociology was Robert E. Park. He believed that cities are like living organisms, composed of interconnected parts and that each part relates to the structure of the city as a whole and to the other parts (Kleniewski, 2001). Park called his approach to urban life â€Å"human ecology,† a term used interchangeably with â€Å"urban ecology. Human ecology studies the â€Å"social norms† which are rooted in the relationship between human populations and the environment or territories they inhabit, stressing the orderly interaction of interdependent parts of social life in urban areas (Kleniewski, 2001). Human ecologist, Louis Wirth shared with the theoretical antecedents of urban ecology, Tonnies, Durkheim and Simmel, the notion that social interactions in cities were different from social interactions in rura l areas or small communities. He believed that social interactions in modern industrial cities were impersonal and fragmented. He believed that factors such as size, density, and heterogeneity were responsible for social relations found in cities (Kleniewski, 2001). This theory of human ecology was used to study human behavior such as, lives of gang members, homeless people and immigrants and to study changing land uses over time in order to show how the different populations of the city adapt to and compete for territories (Kleniewski, 2001. In comparison to urban ecology, political economy is concerned with how urban societies work. Although, political economist developed different understandings and interpretations of how urban societies actually work. In the 1970’s the city had many social problems which included welfare, unemployment and tax inflations. Theorist of political economy, Marx, Engels and Weber viewed the city as a site of struggle due to unequal distribution of resources (Kleniewski, 2001). Therefore in contrast to the urban ecology theory of humans being immediately dependent on their environment, the theory of political economy stresses that the city relies not only on its environment but its social arrangement, economic and political functions. Also in contrast to urban ecology, residential patterns are not only influenced by humans just adapting to their natural environment but by economic inequalities. This leads to competition. In contrast to urban ecology, competition not just among groups for space but among groups for control of economic resources. Political economists theorize that â€Å"social norms,† in contrast to urban ecology are not only influenced by size and density of the population but also influenced by the values of dominant groups (Kleniewski, 2001). These struggles or social forces help shape urban patterns and urban social life. Therefore, class, social status, political power, racial and ethnic conflicts also play a major role in shaping the city (Kleniewski, 2001). The Political Economy Perspective

Unemployment in 1930s Britain

Unemployment in 1930s Britain Examine the problems facing families living in areas of high unemployment in Britain in the 1930s Introduction The inter-war period is truly one of a double-edged transition. On the one hand, this period was to see the beginnings of revolution in many social institutions (such as marriage, family and the Church) that the men and women of the late Victorian era would have taken for granted. The inter-war period (which provided the necessary societal bases for the post-war creation of the Welfare State) also saw economic expansion and an improvement in welfare and living standards; infant mortality steadily decreased during the inter-war period, from 108 per 1000 live births in 1913, to 53 by 1938 (Thorpe, p.57, 1994) and the advent of mass consumerism and the wide-spread potential for leisure and tourism amongst Britons, in other words, hall-marks of a society in the process of modernisation (Stevenson, 1984). On the other hand, there is a darker side to this vision of untrammelled progress. The inter-war period has been characterised sinisterly as â€Å"the devil’s decade† (Stevenson, p.266, 1984). This epithet was bestowed on account of the image this decade has of general unemployment, which led to wide-spread impoverishment and Hunger Marches. The Wall Street Crash of 1929, which halted the American economic upsurge of the 1920s, led to a world-wide economic slump, and is the watershed for the mass unemployment that was to pervade Britain in the 1930s; for the eighteen years between 1921-1938, the official figure for unemployment never fell below one million (Harris, p.203, 1994). Britain’s worst years for unemployment were after 1931, a crisis year, because the disaster of the Wall Street Crash of 1929 had had time to take effect. In the winter of 1932-3, unemployment reached its highest peak, with just under three million workers (representing a quarter of the re gistered workforce) unemployed (Thorpe, p.88, 1994). As with any period of economic stagnation, unemployment brings with it a range of knock-on social problems for the family unit. Structural Unemployment Unemployment can be categorised as either cyclical or structural. The former is the type of unemployment that comes and goes in phases. It is linked with the economic cycle of boom and bust; when the economy is in boom, then unemployment in certain sectors will temporarily reduce, though the converse also holds. In the 1930s, which saw quite a dramatic economic cycle of boom and bust, cyclical unemployment was always a large and difficult problem. However, the problem of cyclical unemployment, being more immediately noticeable, is one that can easily mask an underlying problem of structural unemployment. This is the unemployment that still obtains, despite any periods of high economic activity. For example, even in those years of peak economic activity in the inter-war period, there was still a high level of unemployment in the staple export trades. For example, even before the world-wide economic crisis of 1929-1931, the traditional heavy industries, such as ship-building and coal-m ining, also faced high levels of unemployment. By 1929, a fifth of all coalminers were unemployed, and likewise for those workers in the iron and steel industries (Stevenson, p.269, 1984). The structural unemployment in these kinds of heavy industries, perhaps where a mine was abandoned or disused, for example, brought about the typical pattern of localised unemployment during the 1930s. The era saw depressed regions, where the local economy was dependent on heavy industry. In a region such as the north-east, with a strong and steady history of heavy industry, unemployment hit hard, as can be seen from the emotive Jarrow March to London, organised in 1936 by the local council, to draw attention to the problem of high unemployment, particularly in the heavy industry of ship-building (Thorpe, p.176, 1994). Poverty Contemporary commentators on 1930s Britain regarded the high unemployment of their time as a frightening new development. As a result, their anxieties reveal themselves in the large number of social investigations into the causes of poverty (defined as not having enough income to maintain health) and the impact of unemployment on families, and thence on societies. These studies helped to raise awareness of the plight of the unemployed, and to a large extent, provided the momentum for the social change that dawned after the Second World War (Harris, p.213, 1994). Poverty was not necessarily an immediate consequence of unemployment: some unemployed workers found that their benefits provided a more consistent wage compared to what they used to earn from insecure, seasonal labour. However, this was only a minority. The majority found that unemployment brought with it a drop in income. Thus, in order to supplement their income, many workers relied on their savings, or found themselves inc reasingly reliant on other methods in order to make ends meet. At the same time, it was found that unemployment was the major contributing factor towards the poverty of a household: in 1936, Seebohm Rowntree found that 86.4 per cent of the unemployed families living in York were living below the poverty line (Harris, p.214, 1994). Health and Malnutrition As might be expected, one of the more immediate consequences of living below the poverty line is worsened health and malnutrition. Rowntree also made detailed investigation into the health and diet of unemployed families, and compared them with that of the populace as a whole. His concluded that the families of the unemployed survived on a diet which was to all extents worse than that of those employed (Rowntree, p.182-5, 1941). Other studies of this period showed that unemployment had led to a higher incidence of childhood diseases (Harris, p.214, 1994), though it was difficult to prove conclusively that unemployment was significantly affecting infection rates of poverty-linked diseases (such as TB or anaemia). All in all, it could only be conclusively shown that unemployment did have a profound effect on the standards of nutrition, leading in some cases to severe malnutrition (Stevenson, p.283-4, 1984). Mental Health Though the main focus of much contemporary commentary was on the adverse effects unemployment placed on physical health, the deterioration of the mental health of the unemployed was also noted. At a time when the study of psychology was incipient, commentators still took account of the stark impact being out of work could have on self-esteem, and they also characterised the period following unemployment as falling into stages ranging from optimism that a new job could be found, to pessimism and possible suicidal feelings, when work was difficult or impossible to come by: Home Office Statistics of 1930 showed that two unemployed men were committing suicide every day (Stevenson, p.287, 1984) though care should be taken in attributing unemployment as the sole factor in suicide. No doubt unemployment had a part to play in the decision of a few to commit suicide, though this is only the extreme of a general feeling of malaise, boredom, hopelessness and shame that accompanied the status of unemployed. Many workers, especially the more skilled middle-classes who found themselves unemployed, reported a feeling of shame at finding themselves in that condition. Some men disliked to reveal their unemployment to their wives, and tried to conceal it for a while as best they could (Stevenson, p.286, 1984). Conclusion In dealing with a diffuse social problem such as unemployment, it is imperative not to draw hard and fast historical conclusions. Certainly, generalisations can be made, in that unemployment had a profound and long-lasting effect on those who were forced into this economic circumstance. However, unemployment, and the coping mechanisms used to deal with it, meant different things to different people. It is also the case that the related social problems linked to unemployment, namely those of poverty, malnutrition and depressed mental health, are all relative measures. It is true to say that the effects of unemployment were felt so keenly precisely because living standards had generally been on the increase since the dawn of the twentieth century. It was, however, the shocking social experiences of 1930s Britain that provided the catalyst for the creation of the Welfare State and other social reconstructions after the Second World War, and ignited the post-war aspiration to create a be tter, more equitable, society for all. Bibliography Harris, B., Unemployment and the Dole in Interwar Britain 203-220 in P. Johnson (ed.), 20th Century Britain: Economic, Social and Cultural Change (Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd., 1994) Rowntree, B.S., Poverty and Progress: A Second Social Survey of York (London, 1941) Stevenson, J., British Society 1914-1945 The Pelican Social History of Britain, J.H.Plumb (ed.), (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) Thorpe, A., The Longman Companion To: Britain in the era of the two World Wars 1914-1945 (London: Longman Group Ltd., 1994)

Essay --

Josh Harold Mr. Parson Advanced English 12 9 February 2014 The Influence of War on Surveillance Surveillance is the act of watching someone or something for suspicious activity. Throughout the years, surveillance technology has developed significantly. War has contributed greatly to this development. From camouflage to cameras to remote controlled drones, surveillance technology has always been essential both on the battlefield, and in our every day lives. In the past, we have had to rely on basic tools for surveillance. The earliest devices that were used for it were telescopes and spyglasses. The earliest working telescope was invented in 1608 by a man named Hans Lippershey, a spectacle maker from the Netherlands. These devices could were used to see far distances and contributed to many things such as war, exploration, research, and astronomy. Binoculars are also an invention that was made for the same purpose, and eventually ended up replacing the telescope because they were more convenient functionally better. Cameras have been around for a long time. They started off being c...

The Fall of the Roman Empire Essay -- Decline of Ancient Rome

The Roman Empire was, without a doubt, the most powerful governing body in the Mediterranean that ever was. At the peak of the Roman Empire, in the mid part of the first century, it covered about half of Europe, much of the Middle East, and the north coast of Africa. So why did Rome fall? There was not one cause that led to the fall of Rome, but many things occurring in succession to each other. After the reign of Tiberus, there were many poor leaders, two of which were Caligula and Nero. Caligula killed his sister, among many other people and made his favorite horse a senator. Nero murdered his wife and mother and was accused of setting fire to Rome. Such deeds were common because the laws of the empire favored the rich landowners and who ordered and were the target of many assassinations (Gibbon, 70). It is true when it is said that Rome was not built in a day. Nor did it fall in a day. Many factors contributed to the ruin of the Roman Empire. The two most important factors were this: the cities consumed without producing and disease ravaged the Roman world. After the Punic wars with Carthage, Rome acquired many new lands that it did not have before. The farmers of these lands came to the cities, only knowing how to farm and fight wars. With their farms were destroyed, some were able to fight for the professional army, but others were left with nothing to do. These first families had no skills to pass down to their descendants. Generations passed and soon there were no more people that knew how to farm or earn a living. The powers of Rome made this worse by not educating the masses that first came to the cities after the Punic Wars (Stambaugh, 125). During peace times it was easy to govern these areas but du... ... their entire civilization was based on war, greed, and arrogance. Bibliography Baker, Simon. "Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of An Empire" BBC Books; Reprint edition, 2007 Coolidge, Olivia E. "Lives of Famous Romans." American Home School Publishing, 2007. Gibbon, Edward. "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." Everyman's Library, 2010. Grant, Michael. "The Fall of the Roman Empire." Scribner, 1997. Web. 25 June 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23040343?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Guittard, Charles. "The Romans: Life in the Empire." Millbrook Press, 1996. Roberts, J. and Westad, O. "The History of the World" Oxford University Press, 2013. Stambaugh, John E. "The Ancient Roman City." Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. Vickers, Michael J. "The Roman World (The Making of the Past)." Peter Bedrick Books, 1989.

Ceramics of the North and South Coasts Essay -- Pottery Mochica Cerami

Ceramics of the North and South Coasts Ancient Peruvian Ceramics of the North Coast March 11, 1997 The first pottery pieces found in Peru were made somewhere between 1500 and 1000 b.p. The pieces were found in the central Andean region where a religious cult lived. This cult was called Chavà ­n, after the best known ceremonial center, Chavà ­n de Huà ¡ntar. The religious center was the home to massive temples that were highly embellished with low relief sculptures of gods, animals, and symbols. The pottery found in the area where vessels that were well made and highly decorated with a similar motif as the temples. But the evolution of Peruvian pottery becomes somewhat confusing and complex after this first civilization of potters. There is a division of people into the North Coast and the South Coast. The split created two styles of pottery, although similar, they never quite merge. I am only going to talk about the north coast traditions. On the North coast there are five cultures that evolve into the dominant Mochica style, which was one of the most vigorous and prosperous cultures of Ancient Peru. The next earliest North Coast style, other than the Chavà ­n, started with the Cupisnique people in the Chicama valley. Their ceramics â€Å"closely resembled those of highland Chavà ­n. They were well made and polished, though somewhat thick walled and heavy. The type of firing used produced a dark semireduced ware that varied from brownish gray to carbon black in color. Decoration consisted of bold, curvilinear human, feline, and birds of pray heads, eye patterns, pelt markings, and other brief symbols of geometric devices.† In the valley to the south of the Cupisnique were the Salinar people who someti me during the fifth century b.p. moved into the north coast of Peru and spread its influence throughout the Cupisnique area. Salinar pottery, â€Å"though deceptively primitive in ornamentation, was technologically superior to that of the Cupisnique. Vessels were made of well-prepared clays that were fully oxidized in firing, making them an even orange color. Cream and red slips were used to accentuate sculptural forms and create flat geometric patterns, but not to draw figurative motifs. The technical advances of the controlled oxidation firing and slip decoration soon had their effect on contemporary Cupisnique ceramics.† Personally, I enjoyed the bottle forms they used wi... ...V period they had an extensive kingdom established and it brought together the peoples of all the north coast valleys. The ceramics were decorated in flowing, expressive lines and the modeled vessels showed attention to individual detailed ornamentation. But the creative flow in the ceramic styles was hindered somewhat because of a strict militant rule of the warrior-priest class that was beginning. Yet this was still the most creative time for the Mochica people. The final period in Mochica ceramics, due to a collapse of the culture, brought an abrupt termination of the great art tradition that it had expressed so well. The vessels found from this period show a carelessness in painting designs, and less attention to details in the sculptural forms. Many of the figures modeled in to the vessels were warriors dressed for combat. The decline in quality that can be observed, and the nervousness and tension that were expressed in their designs and forms was related to the pressure from the militant expansionist group, the Wari. The struggle between the Mochica and the Wari, was long and fierce, ending in a total collapse of their culture and a loss a 1200 year ceramic tradition.